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Moral relativism or ethical relativism often reformulated as relativist ethics or relativist morality is a term used to describe several philosophical positions concerned with the differences in moral judgments across different peoples and their own particular cultures. An advocate of such ideas is often labeled simply as a relativist for short. In detail, descriptive moral relativism holds only that people do, in fact, disagree fundamentally about what is moral, with no judgment being expressed on the desirability of this. Meta-ethical moral relativism holds that in such disagreements, nobody is objectively right or wrong. Said concepts of the different intellectual movements involve considerable nuance and cannot be treated as absolute descriptions. Descriptive relativists do not necessarily adopt meta-ethical relativism. Moreover, not all meta-ethical relativists adopt normative relativism. American philosopher Richard Rorty in particular has argued that the label of being a "relativist" has become warped and turned into a sort of pejorative.

An ontological argument is a philosophical argumentmade from Advantages Of The Ontological Argument ontological basis, that is advanced in support of the existence of God. Such arguments tend to refer to the state of being or existing. More specifically, ontological arguments are commonly conceived a priori in regard to the organization of the universe, whereby, if such organizational structure is true, God must exist. The Advantages Of The Ontological Argument ontological argument in Western Christian tradition [i] was proposed by Saint Anselm of Canterbury in his work, Proslogion Latin : Proslogiumlit. Therefore, this greatest possible being must exist in reality. Since its initial proposal, few philosophical ideas have generated as much interest and discussion as the ontological argument.

Nearly all of the great minds in Western philosophy have found it worthy of their attention. Descartes published several variations of his argument, each of which center on the idea that God's existence is immediately inferable from a "clear and distinct" idea of a supremely perfect being. In the early 18th century, Gottfried Leibniz augmented Descartes' ideas in an attempt to prove that a "supremely perfect" being is a coherent concept. Norman Malcolm revived the ontological argument in when he located a second, stronger ontological argument in Anselm's work; Alvin Plantinga challenged this argument and proposed an alternative, based on modal logic. Attempts have also been made to validate Anselm's proof using an automated theorem prover. Other arguments have been categorised as ontological, including those made by Islamic philosophers Mulla Sadra and Allama Tabatabai.

Just as the ontological argument has been popular, a number of criticisms and objections have also been mounted. Its first critic would be Gaunilo of Marmoutiersa contemporary of Anselm's. Gaunilo, suggesting that the ontological argument could be used to prove the existence of anything, uses the analogy of a perfect island. Such would be the first of many parodies, all of which attempted to show the absurd consequences of the ontological argument.

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Later, Thomas Aquinas rejected the argument on the basis that humans cannot know God's nature. David Hume also offered an empirical objection, Advanntages its lack of evidential reasoning and rejecting the idea that anything can exist necessarily. Advantages Of The Ontological Argument Kant 's critique was based on what he saw as the false premise that existence is a predicatearguing that "existing" adds nothing including perfection to the essence of a being. Thus, a "supremely perfect" being can be conceived not to exist.

Finally, philosophers such as C. Broad dismissed the coherence of a maximally great being, proposing that some attributes of greatness are incompatible with others, rendering "maximally great being" incoherent. The traditional definition of an ontological argument was given by Immanuel Kant.

Graham OppyAdvantages Of The Ontological Argument elsewhere expressed that he "see[s] no urgent reason" to depart from the traditional definition, [2] defined ontological arguments as those which begin with "nothing but analytic, a priori and necessary premises" and conclude that God exists. Oppy admits, however, that not all of the "traditional characteristics" of an ontological argument i.

Oppy subclassified ontological arguments, based on the qualities of their premises, using the following qualities: [1] [2]. William Lane Craig criticised Oppy's study as too vague for useful classification. Craig argues that an argument can be classified as ontological if it attempts to deduce the existence of God, along with other necessary truths, from his definition. He suggests that proponents of ontological arguments would claim that, if one fully understood the concept of God, one must accept his existence.

William L. Rowe defines ontological arguments as those which start from the definition of God and, using only a priori principles, conclude with God's existence. Although a version of the ontological argument appears explicitly in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher Xenophanes and variations appear in writings by ParmenidesPlatoand the Neoplatonists[8] the mainstream view is that the ontological argument was first clearly stated and developed by Anselm of Canterbury. Daniel Dombrowski marked three major stages in the development of the argument: [16].

Theologian and philosopher Anselm of Canterbury — proposed an ontological argument in the 2nd and 3rd chapters continue reading his Proslogion. In Advantages Of The Ontological Argument 2 of the ProslogionAnselm defines God as a "being than which no greater can be conceived.]