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Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source—language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.

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A translator always risks inadvertently introducing source—language words, grammaror syntax into the target—language rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source—language calques and loanwords that have enriched target languages.

Translators, including early translators of sacred textshave helped shape https://amazonia.fiocruz.br/scdp/essay/mormon-bank-utah/book-review-of-ricky-tike-tavy.php very languages into which they have translated.

Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator. Thus translatio is "a carrying across" or "a bringing across" — in this case, of a text from one language to another. Some Slavic languages and the Germanic languages other than Dutch and Afrikaans have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatiosubstituting their respective Slavic or Germanic root words for the Latin roots. Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more Speech And Communication Barriers And Noise one word.

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Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation. Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase literal translation and paraphrase.

This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator John Dryden —who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," or equivalentsfor the expressions used in the source language:. When [words] appear But since Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.

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This general formulation of the central concept of translation— equivalence —is as adequate as any that has been proposed since Cicero and Horacewho, in 1st-century-BCE Romefamously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" verbum pro verbo. Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity.

Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Agesand adapters in various periods Speech And Communication Barriers And Noise pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th centurytranslators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents —"literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary—for the original meaning and other crucial "values" e. In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememesand hence word order —when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure, for example, by shifting from active to passive voiceor vice versa. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages [14] e.

English, French https://amazonia.fiocruz.br/scdp/essay/perception-checking-examples/difference-between-digestive-system-and-digestive-system.php, German and "free-word-order" languages [15] e.]