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Social class in the United States refers to the idea of grouping Americans by some measure of social status, typically economic, however it could also refer to social status or location. Many Americans believe in a social class system that has three different groups or classes: the American rich , the American middle class , and the American poor. More complex models propose as many as a dozen class levels, including levels such as high upper class, upper class, upper middle class, middle class, lower middle class, lower class and lower lower middle class. Most concepts of American social class do not focus on race or ethnicity as a characteristic within the stratification system, although these factors are closely related. These class models feature an upper or capitalist class consisting of the rich and powerful, an upper middle class consisting of highly educated and affluent professionals, a middle class consisting of college-educated individuals employed in white-collar industries, a lower middle class composed of semi-professionals with typically some college education, a working class constituted by clerical and blue collar workers whose work is highly routinized, and a lower class divided between the working poor and the unemployed underclass. Some definitions of class look only at numerical measures such as wealth or income. Others take into account qualitative factors, such as education, culture, and social status. There is no consensus on which of these variables is essential and which are merely common correlates. A Comparison Of Gilbert And Stouts Theory

Epistemologists study the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge, epistemic justificationthe rationality of beliefand various related issues. Epistemology is considered one of the four main branches of philosophy, along with ethicslogicand metaphysics.

Debates in epistemology are generally clustered around four core areas: [2] [3] [4]. In these debates and others, epistemology aims to answer questions such as "What do we know?

The word "epistemology" first appeared inin a review in New York's Eclectic Magazine. It was first used as a translation of the word Wissenschaftslehre as it appears in a philosophical novel Gilberrt German author Jean Paul :. The title of one of the principal works of Fichte is 'Wissenschaftslehre,' which, after the analogy of technology The word "epistemology" was properly introduced into Anglophone philosophical literature by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier inwho used it in his Institutes of Metaphysics :.

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This Leaseplan Effectively Manages Diversity of the science is properly termed the Epistemology—the doctrine or theory of knowing, just as ontology is the science of being It answers the general question, 'What is knowing and the known? The concept of "epistemology" as a distinct field of inquiry predates the introduction of the term into the lexicon of philosophy. John Lockefor instance, described his efforts in Essay Concerning Human Understanding as an inquiry "into the original, certainty, and extent of human knowledge, together with the grounds and degrees of belief, opinion, and assent". While it was not until the modern era that epistemology was first recognized as a distinct philosophical discipline which addresses a well-defined set of questions, almost every major historical philosopher has considered questions about what we know and how we know it.

During the subsequent Hellenistic periodphilosophical schools began to appear which had a greater focus on epistemological questions, often in the form of philosophical skepticism. Pyrrhonism was particularly concerned with undermining the epistemological dogmas of Stoicism and Epicureanism. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own. After the ancient philosophical era but before the modern philosophical era, a number of Medieval philosophers also engaged with epistemological questions at length. According to some scholars, this dispute was resolved in the late 18th century by Immanuel Kantwhose transcendental idealism famously made room for the view that "though all our knowledge begins with experience, it by no means follows that all [knowledge] arises out of experience".

There are a number of different A Comparison Of Gilbert And Stouts Theory that scholars use when trying click at this page understand the relationship between historical epistemology and contemporary epistemology. One of the most contentious questions is this: "Should we assume that the problems of epistemology are perennial, and that trying to reconstruct and evaluate Plato's or Hume's or Kant's arguments is meaningful for current debates, too? Nearly all debates in epistemology are in some way related to knowledge. Most generally, "knowledge" is a familiarity, awareness, or understanding of someone or something, which might include facts propositional knowledgeskills procedural knowledgeor objects acquaintance knowledge.

Philosophers tend to draw an important distinction between three different senses of "knowing" something: " knowing that " knowing the truth of propositions" knowing how " understanding how to perform certain actionsand " knowing by acquaintance " directly perceiving an object, being familiar with it, or otherwise A Comparison Of Gilbert And Stouts Theory into contact with it. All three senses of "knowing" can be seen in our ordinary use of the word. While these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are explicitly made in other languages, including French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, German and Dutch although some languages related to English have been said to retain these verbs, such as Scots. In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of PhilosophyBertrand Russell brought a great deal of attention to the distinction between " knowledge by description " and " knowledge by acquaintance ". Gilbert Ryle is similarly credited with bringing more attention to the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind.

In Personal KnowledgeMichael Polanyi argues for the epistemological relevance of knowledge how and knowledge that; using the example of the act of balance involved in riding a bicycle, he suggests that the theoretical knowledge of the physics involved in maintaining a state of balance cannot substitute for the practical knowledge of how to ride, and that it is important to understand how both are established and grounded. This position is essentially Ryle's, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between "knowledge that" and "knowledge how" leads to infinite regress. One of the most important distinctions in epistemology is between what can be known a priori independently of experience and what can be known A Comparison Of Gilbert And Stouts Theory posteriori through experience.

The terms may be roughly defined as follows: [20]. Views that emphasize the importance of a priori knowledge are generally classified as rationalist.

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Views that emphasize the importance of a posteriori knowledge are generally classified as empiricist. One of the core concepts in epistemology is belief. A belief is an attitude that a person holds regarding anything that they take to be true.]