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Between the 7th and 19th centuries, several large states emerged in the Sahel and in eastern and southern Africa. Key to their rise and prosperity was a growing population and agriculture as well as expanding trade, either through Tye trans-Saharan trade to the Mediterranean or across the Indian Ocean to Asia and the Arabian Peninsula.

Following the abolition of slavery in the 19th century, Europe partitioned and colonized the continent and presided over varied economic regimes. These were settler colonies, peasant-agricultural colonies, and concession company colonies.

Of the three, settler colonies developed most, although at the expense of the African majority. Independence came after the Second World War and Africa entered its postcolonial phase.

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After a promising Effeccts in the decade of the s, African economies went into decline in the s, necessitating governments to borrow from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund IMF in order to revamp their economies. The structural adjustment programs they were required to implement as a condition for the loans proved to be deleterious to African economies.

They have used three analytical approaches: classical economics, dependency theory, and Marxist paradigms. Each of the three approaches has some shortcomings. More economics than conventional economic history, it has attracted some from more history-based scholars as ahistorical. African economic history is a relatively young discipline dating back only to the mid- 20th century. Scholars have mostly focused on the period after the 15th century and not on the earlier periods because of the lack of written sources for much of the continent. However, studies by archaeologists, paleontologists, and other Exchagne have contributed considerably Tue knowledge about this early period.

African economic history can be divided into several broad periods, which are used here simply as broad markers and not rigid demarcations. The first period is from the earliest hominids, the ancestors of humankind, through the Stone and Iron Ages, to the domestication of plants and animals and the development of agriculture. This early period witnessed not just click for source advances in technology from stone to iron tools, but also the emergence of organizational and governance systems, social hierarchies, specialization, and the establishment and growth of African states and kingdoms. The period also saw the growth of trade both within and beyond the African continent, as agricultural surplus, minerals mainly goldExchangw, salt, slaves, and other items were traded on the continent and to Asia, the Mediterranean countries, Negative Effects Of The Columbian Exchange the Middle East.

Africa was the cradle of humankind. Evidence abounds of Africa as the birthplace for all humans in the form of ancient bones, fossils, stone tools, and other artifacts that attest to the fact that Africa was home to the earliest hominids human-like creatures with enlarged brains and the ability to walk on two legs who probably evolved from the great African apes—the gorilla and the chimpanzee—some ten million years ago. Inanthropologist Raymond Dart of the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, discovered in a cave near Negative Effects Of The Columbian Exchange the skull of a six-year-old creature, ape-like in appearance but with certain human-like characteristics. Dart named this creature Australopithecus africanus southern ape from Africa. The discovery of more evolved Thd of hominids in the form of Homo habilis clever or handy man in the Odluvai Gorge in the s, Homo erectus the upright man in the Lake Turkana area inand subsequently Homo sapiens showed how human beings evolved over time.

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Meanwhile, the first stone tools found outside Africa date to about half a million years after those found in Africa, suggesting that Homo erectusthe first to use stone tools, spread to other parts of the world from Africa. The ability to make and use tools, beginning with stone tools in the Stone Age, distinguished the Homo Negative Effects Of The Columbian Exchange from all other species.

Starting with the stone hand axe used by Homo erectus about one and half million years ago, in the Early Stone Age stone technology improved over time to produce more sophisticated and varied tools. By the Late Stone Age, about forty thousand years ago, Homo sapiens sapiens were able to produce microliths tiny stones fashioned into spearheads, arrow points, and tools. Further technological advances produced the bow and arrow, needles, and fish hooks, which improved hunting and fishing techniques.]