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The existence of God is a subject of debate in the philosophy of religion and popular culture. In philosophical terms, the question of the existence of God involves the disciplines of epistemology the nature and scope of knowledge and ontology study of the nature of being , existence , or reality and the theory of value since some definitions of God include "perfection". The Western tradition of philosophical discussion of the existence of God began with Plato and Aristotle , who made arguments that would now be categorized as cosmological. Other arguments for the existence of God have been proposed by St. John Calvin argued for a sensus divinitatis , which gives each human a knowledge of God's existence. An Argument Against Non Naturalism

This entry discusses philosophical idealism as a movement chiefly in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, although anticipated by certain aspects of seventeenth century philosophy and continuing into the twentieth century. It revises the standard distinction between epistemological idealism, the view that the contents of human knowledge are ineluctably determined by the structure of human thought, and ontological idealism, the view that epistemological idealism delivers truth because reality itself is a form of thought and human thought participates in it, in favor of a distinction earlier suggested by A. Ewing, between epistemological and metaphysical arguments for idealism as itself a metaphysical position. After discussing precursors, the entry focuses on the eighteenth-century versions of idealism due to Berkeley, Hume, and Kant, the nineteenth-century movements of German idealism and subsequently British and American idealism, and then concludes with an examination of the An Argument Against Non Naturalism upon idealism by Moore and Russell and the late defense of idealism by Brand Blanshard.

2. Idealism in Early Modern Rationalism

With the possible exception of the introduction Section 1each of the sections below can be read independently and readers are welcome to focus on the section s An Argument Against Non Naturalism most interest. However, independently of context one can distinguish between a descriptive or classificatory use of these terms and a polemical one, although sometimes these different uses occur together. Within these idealisms one can find further distinctions, such as those between subjective, objective and absolute idealism, and even more obscure characterizations such as speculative idealism and transcendental idealism. Thus, an idealist is someone who is not a realist, not a materialist, not a dogmatist, not an empiricist, and so on.

Within modern philosophy there are sometimes taken to be two fundamental conceptions of idealism:. So instead of using Kant as any kind of model for epistemological idealism, in this entry we will distinguish between metaphysical and epistemological arguments for idealism understood as a metaphysical doctrine, namely that everything that exists is in some way mental.

We thus agree with A. Ewing, who wrote in that all forms of idealism. Ewing 3.

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Roughly, the genus comprises theories that attribute ontological priority to the mental, especially the conceptual or ideational, over An Argument Against Non Naturalism non-mental. Metaphysical arguments proceed by identifying some general constraints on An Argument Against Non Naturalism and arguing that only minds of some sort or other satisfy such conditions; epistemological arguments work by identifying some conditions for knowledge and arguing that only objects that are in some sense or other mental can satisfy the conditions for being known.

In particular, epistemological arguments for idealism assume that there is a necessary isomorphism between knowledge and its object that can obtain only if the object check this out knowledge is itself mental; we propose that this is the difference between epistemologically-motivated idealism and a more neutral position, which might be identified with philosophers such as Rudolf Carnap, W.

It is in order to preserve the distinction between traditional idealism and positions such as the latter that we recommend retaining the claim that reality is in some way or other exclusively mental and thinking of epistemological arguments for idealism rather than epistemological idealism as such.]