Northern Crusades — The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The term refers especially to the Eastern Mediterranean campaigns in the period between and that had the objective of conquering the Holy Land from Islamic rule.
The term has also been applied to other church-sanctioned campaigns fought to combat paganism and heresyto resolve conflict among rival Roman Catholic groups, or to gain political and territorial advantage.
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The difference between these campaigns and other Christian religious conflicts was that they were considered a penitential exercise that brought forgiveness of sins declared by the church. Historians contest the definition of the term "crusade". Some restrict it to only armed pilgrimages to Jerusalem ; others include all Catholic military campaigns with a promise of spiritual benefit; all Catholic holy wars ; or those with a characteristic of religious fervour. Across all social strata in western Europe there was an enthusiastic popular response. Volunteers took a public vow to join the crusade. Historians now debate the combination of their motivations, which included click here prospect of mass ascension into Heaven at Jerusalem, satisfying feudal obligations, opportunities for renown, and Aggression Since the Beginning of Time and political advantage.
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The crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the city of Acre fell inleading to the rapid loss of all remaining territory in the Levant. After this, there were no further crusades to recover the Holy Land.
Proclaimed a crusade inthe struggle between the Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula was called the Reconquista by Christians, and only ended in with the fall of the Muslim Emirate of Granada.
From campaigns in Northern Europe against pagan tribes were considered crusades. The conflicts to which the term is applied has been extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church against pagansheretics or for alleged religious ends. At the time of the First Crusadeiter"journey", and peregrinatio"pilgrimage" were used for the campaign. Only at the end of the century was a specific language of crusading adopted in the form of crucesignatus —"one signed by the cross"—for a crusader. This led to the French croisade —the way of the cross.
The city and the Eastern Roman Empire are more generally known as Byzantium, the name of the older Greek city it replaced. Its remoteness from focus of Islamic power struggles enabled relative peace and prosperity for the Holy Land in Syria and Palestine. The conflict in the Iberian peninsula was the only location where Muslim-Western European contact was more Aggression Since the Beginning of Time minimal. The Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world were long Aggression Since the Beginning of Time centres of wealth, culture and military power. They viewed Western Europe as a backwater that presented little organised threat. The Empire's frontiers stretched east to Iran. It controlled Bulgaria, much of southern Italy and suppressed piracy in the Mediterranean Sea.
The Empire's relationships with its Islamic neighbours were no more quarrelsome than its relationships with the Slavs or the Western Christians. The Normans in Italy; to the north PechenegsSerbs and Cumans ; and Seljuk Turks in the east all competed with the Empire and the emperors recruited mercenaries —even on occasions from their enemies—to meet this challenge. The emergence of Shia Islam —the belief system that only descendants of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Aliand daughter, Fatimahcould lawfully be caliph — had led to a split with Sunni Islam on theology, ritual and law.
As People of the Book or dhimmi they could continue in their faith on payment of a poll tax. Prisoners from the borderlands of Khurasan and Transoxania were transported to central Islamic lands, converted to Islam and given military training. Known as ghulam or mamluksit was expected that as slaves they would be more loyal to their masters. In practice it took these Turks only a few decades to progress from being guards, to commanders, governors, dynastic founders and eventually king makers.
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Examples include the Tulunids in Egypt and Syria — and the Ikhshidids who followed in Egypt — The political situation in Western Asia was further changed by later waves of Turkish migration. Previously a minor ruling clan from Transoxania, they had recently converted to Islam and migrated into Iran to seek their fortune. In the two decades following their arrival they conquered Iran, Iraq and the Near East. The Seljuks and their followers were from the Sunni Islamic tradition which brought them into conflict in Palestine and Syria Aggression Since the Beginning of Time the Shi'ite Fatimids. This difference and the governance of territory based on political preference, and competition between independent princes rather than geography, weakened power structures. Historians once considered this a pivotal event but now Manzikert is regarded as Begknning one further step in the expansion of the Great Seljuk Empire.
But in the period from the s until the s, under the influence of the Gregorian Reform movement, it became increasingly assertive.]
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