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Afrocentrism also Afrocentricity is an approach to the study of world history that focuses on the history of people of recent African descent. Afrocentrism is a scholarly movement that seeks to conduct research and education on global history subjects, from the perspective of historical African peoples and polities. It takes a critical stance on Eurocentric assumptions and myths about world history, in order to pursue methodological studies of the latter. Some of the critics of the movement believe that it often denies or minimizes European, Near Eastern , and Asian cultural influences while exaggerating certain aspects of historical African civilizations that independently accomplished a significant level of cultural and technological development. In general, Afrocentrism is usually manifested in a focus on the history of Africa and its role in contemporary African-American culture among others. What is today broadly called Afrocentrism evolved out of the work of African-American intellectuals in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but flowered into its modern form due to the activism of African-American intellectuals in the U. However, following the development of universities in African colonies in the s, African scholars became major contributors to African historiography. Proponents of Afrocentrism support the claim that the contributions of various Black African people have been downplayed or discredited as part of the legacy of colonialism and slavery's pathology of "writing Africans out of history". Clarence E. Walker claims it to be "Eurocentrism in blackface ".

Hindutva transl. Hinduness is the predominant form of Hindu nationalism in India. The Hindutva movement has been described as a variant of "right-wing extremism" [5] and as "almost fascist in the classical sense", adhering to a disputed concept of homogenised majority and cultural hegemony. Hindutva was mainstreamed into Indian politics with Narendra Modi 's election as Prime Minister in Sindh ; gradually extended by Persians, Greeks, and Arabs, to northern India as a whole. According to Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World ReligionsHindutva is a concept of "Indian cultural, national, and religious identity".

Some Indians insist, however, that Hindutva is primarily a cultural term to refer to the The Origin Of Culture And The False and indigenous heritage of the Indian nation-state, and they compare the relationship between Hindutva and India to that of Zionism and Israel. According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics and International Relations"Hindutva, translated as 'Hinduness,' refers to the ideology of Hindu nationalists, stressing the common culture of the inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent. Modern politicians have attempted to play down the racial and anti-Muslim aspects of Hindutva, stressing the inclusiveness of the Indian identity; but the term has Fascist undertones.

Later, Hindu-nationalist ideologues transformed the concept https://amazonia.fiocruz.br/scdp/blog/purdue-owl-research-paper/marketing-microwave-ovens-to-a-new-market.php a strategy to include non-Hindus, in order to widen their social base, and for political mobilization. The article further states, "proponents of Hindutva have sought to promote the identification of national identity with the religious and broader cultural heritage of Hindus. Measures taken to achieve this end have included attempts to 'reclaim' individuals judged to have taken up 'alien' religions, the pursuit of social, cultural and philanthropic activities designed to strengthen awareness of Hindu belonging, and direct political action through various organisations, including recognized political parties such as the Bharatiya Janata Party BJP.

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The three essentials of Hindutva in Savarkar's definition https://amazonia.fiocruz.br/scdp/blog/story-in-italian/friendship-essay.php the common nation rashtracommon race jatiand common culture or civilisation sanskriti. Hinduism, Buddhism, The Origin Of Culture And The False and Sikhism. Savarkar restricted "Hindu nationality" to "Indian religions" in the sense that they shared a common culture and fondness for the land of their origin. According to Christophe Jaffrelota political scientist specialising in South Asia, Savarkar — declaring himself as an atheist — "minimizes the importance of religion in his definition of Hindu", and instead emphasises an ethnic group with a shared culture and cherished geography. To Savarkar, states Jaffrelot, "Muslims were the real enemies, not the British", because their Islamic ideology posed "a threat to the real nation, namely Hindu Rashtra" in his vision.

He included those who had converted to Christianity or Islam but accepted and cherished the shared Indic culture, considering them as those who can be re-integrated. Savarkar's notion of Hindutva formed the foundation for his Hindu nationalism. The definition and the use of Hindutva and its relationship with Hinduism has been a part of several court cases in India. The decision has influenced how the term Hindutva has been understood in later cases, in particular the seven decisions of the Supreme Court in the s that are now called the "Hindutva judgments".

It may well be that these words are used in a speech to promote secularism or to emphasise the way of life of the Indian people and the Indian culture or ethos, or to criticise the policy of any political party as discriminatory or intolerant. According to him, it is unfortunate that "the communal propaganda machinery relentlessly disseminates "Hindutva" as a communal word, something that has also become embedded in the minds and language of opinion leaders, including politicians, media, civil society and the intelligentsia".

The term "Hindutva" first appeared in the mids in the novel Anandamath by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. Johnson, a religious studies scholar with a focus on Hinduism. In particular, it was pan-Islamism and similar "Pan-isms" that he assumed made the Hindus vulnerable, as he wrote:. O Hindus, consolidate and strengthen Continue reading nationality; not to give wanton Oeigin to any of our non-Hindu compatriots, in fact to any one in the world but in just and urgent defence of our race and land; to render it impossible for others to betray her or to subject her to unprovoked attack by any of those Cultyre that are struggling forth from continent to continent. Since Savarkar's time, the "Hindu identity" and the associated Hindutva ideology has been built upon the perceived vulnerability of Indian religions, culture and heritage from those who through "orientalist construction" have vilified them as inferior to a non-Indian religion, culture and heritage.

According to Arvind Sharmaa scholar of Hinduism, Hindutva has not been a "static and monolithic concept", rather its meaning and "context, text and subtext has changed over time". The struggles of the colonial era and the formulation of neo-Hinduism by the early 20th-century added a sense Orrigin "ethnicity" to the original "Hinduness" meaning of Hindutva. Savarkar and his Hindutva colleagues adopted the social Darwinism theories prevalent by the s.

In general, the Hindutva read more among many Indians has "tried to align itself with the culture and nation" axes. According to Prabhu Bapu, a historian and scholar of Oriental Studies, the term and the contextual meaning of Hindutva emerged from the Indian experience in the colonial era, memories of its religious wars as the Mughal Empire decayed, an era of Muslim and Christian proselytisation, a feeling that their traditions and cultures were being insulted, Orign the Hindu intellectuals formulated Hindutva as a "Hindu identity" as a prelude to a national resurgence and a unified Indian nation against the "foreign invaders".

According to Chetan Bhatt, the various forms of Hindu nationalism including the recent "cultural nationalist" form of Hindutva, have roots in the second half of the 19th-century. These ideas included those of a nation, nationalism, race, Aryanism TThe, OrientalismRomanticism and others. He studied in London between and His political activities and intellectual journeys through the European publications, according to Bhatt, influenced him, his future writings and the 20th-century Hindutva ideology that emerged from his writings.

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This organisation rapidly grew to become the largest Hindu nationalist movement. Hedgewar's RSS not only propagated Hindutva ideology, it developed a grassroots organizational structure sakhas to reform the Hindu society. Village level groups met for morning and evening physical training sessions, martial training and Hindutva ideology lessons.]