Review Of Antwone Fisher s Diagnostic And - amazonia.fiocruz.br

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Given the importance of early diagnosis, extensive efforts have been undertaken to identify diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for AD.

The disease is associated with numerous structural and functional alterations involving not only neurons but also all other brain cells Weller and Budson, Therefore, extensive efforts are underway to identify robust, specific, Fusher, and Anhwone accessible indicators of AD, particularly at its mild cognitive impairment MCI prodromal stage or even preclinically Sperling et al. In addition to their importance for clinical practice, such biomarkers might inform us about the molecular neuropathology of AD and provide us with novel therapeutic targets. Extracellular vesicles EVs include exosomes 30— nm in diameterwhich originate from late endosomes and Review Of Antwone Fisher s Diagnostic And released from cytoplasmic multivesicular bodies MVBs fusing with the plasma membrane, microvesicles —1, nm in diameter that originate by budding of the plasma membrane, and apoptotic bodies reaching up to 5, nm in diameter Raposo and Stoorvogel, ; van Niel et al.

EVs are found in body fluids such as blood, breast milk, amniotic fluid, urine, and saliva Armstrong and Wildman, and are produced by all cell types, including neurons, astrocytes, and microglia Holm et al.

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The composition, size, and concentration of EVs, and their rate of release vary depending on the cell type and pathophysiological conditions. Accordingly, EV contents from many biological fluids are currently used as diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers. For example, renal EVs detected in blood and urine more info proteins, mRNAs, and microRNAs that are altered with kidney disease and can be utilized as biomarkers Stahl et al. Similarly, EVs have emerged as biomarkers in cancer and cardiovascular diseases Dickhout and Koenen, ; Lane et al.

In the central nervous system CNSmicroglia, oligodendrocytes, neurons, and astrocytes have been found to release EVs Holm et al.

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In recent years, multiple studies have identified and validated protein cargo of neuronal and astrocytic EVs as biomarkers for AD Goetzl et al. Nevertheless, the rich cargo of EVs provide opportunities for discovering biomarkers that reflect other important aspects of disease pathogenesis.

While the molecular content of EVs can provide critical clues about the mechanisms that govern disease progression, they can also provide a powerful disease signature. Together, these findings suggest that the circulating EVs from AD patients contain mitochondrial material, perhaps due to mitochondrial dysfunction that results from exposure to stressful stimuli.

All participants provided written informed consent. Procedures for sample collection and processing were identical for all samples. Table 1. Demographic, clinical, and biomarker characteristics of human subjects. For the purpose of this study, we selected baseline samples i.

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EVs isolated from each individual subject were processed and analyzed separately. The final libraries were subjected to paired-end sequencing bases using an Illumina HiSeq sequencer. FASTQ files were extracted using bcl2fastq v2. FeatureCounts was used to create gene counts from 15 samples. Differential expression analysis was carried out using edgeR library in R.

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Data are available at GSE EVs click from individual subjects were not pooled, and their Diagnoatic were assessed and analyzed separately to respect their biological variability. PCR primer pairs each forward and reverse were as follows:. For primary cultures of embryonic cortical neurons, timed-pregnant mice were obtained from The Jackson Laboratory. Cultures were prepared from embryonic day E ]