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In the fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate , the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from Throughout the history of Islam , a few other Muslim states, almost all hereditary monarchies such as the Mamluk Sultanate Cairo and Ayyubid Caliphate , [3] [4] have claimed to be caliphates. Prior to the rise of Muhammad, Arab tribes followed a pre-Islamic Arab polytheism and lived as self-governing sedentary and nomadic tribal communities. The caliphate had considerable acceptance of the Christians within its territory, necessitated by their large numbers, especially in the region of Syria. From the 10th century, Abbasid rule became confined to an area around Baghdad and saw several occupations from foreign powers. Though lacking in political power, the Abbasid dynasty continued to claim authority in religious matters until the Ottoman conquest of Mamluk Egypt in , which saw the establishment of the Ottoman Caliphate. The conquest gave the Ottomans control over the holy cities of Mecca and Medina , previously controlled by the Mamluks. The Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the leaders and representatives of the Muslim world and the Gunpowder empires. The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph was a selected or elected position. The Establishment Of Authority And Influence Over

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Handling Situations In Which You Lack the Authority You \

Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is sceptical of authority and rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of hierarchy.

Anarchism calls for the abolition of the state which it holds to be undesirable, unnecessary and harmful. It is usually described alongside libertarian Marxism as the libertarian wing libertarian socialism of the socialist movement and as having a historical association with anti-capitalism and socialism.

The history of anarchism goes back to prehistorywhen some humans lived in anarchistic societies long before the establishment of formal states, realms or empires. With the rise of organised hierarchical bodies, scepticism toward authority also rose, but it was not until the 19th century that a self-conscious political movement emerged. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for emancipation.

Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in The Establishment Of Authority And Influence Over revolutions, most notably in the Spanish Civil Warwhose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism. In the last decades of Ths 20th century and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more.

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Anarchism employs a diversity of tactics in order to meet its ideal ends which can be broadly separated into revolutionary and evolutionary tactics. There is significant overlap between the two which are merely descriptive. Revolutionary tactics aim to bring down authority and state, having taken a violent turn in the past. Evolutionary tactics aim to prefigure what an anarchist society would be like.

Anarchist thought, criticism and praxis have played a part in diverse areas of human society. Criticism of anarchism mainly focuses on claims of it being internally inconsistent, violent and utopian.]